By R. Prasannan
In the beginning there was stone. Armed with his thumb, man fashioned tools out of stone, and gathered his food. With stone, he drew pictures on the walls of the caves he lived in. Then he built houses to live in, and dolmens to bury the dead. They were the first Taj Mahals. More than anything else, the stone—be it the rubble stone on which Asoka wrote his edicts, the granite with which Buddhist caityas and Hindu temples were carved, the marble that Shahjehan fancied, the laterite that the Portuguese used for building Goan churches or the red and white sandstones that Lutyens got from Dholpur—has been the medium through which rising and falling civilisations bequeathed their legacies to posterity. Most of everything else has perished or worn down by the sands of time.
Temple-prolific and built to last: The famous
at Konark (above right)
The story of
The story of
This co-existence of cultures has made the classification a bit difficult chronologically. The first period, the proto-historic period, represents a stage in the evolution of the Indian man when he was yet to build his own house. This cave-man continued to live even when his Harappan cousins were building well-drained cities and trading with west Asian ports, or when Ajantas and Elloras were being chiselled out in the Buddhist period. Ironically, a neat classification could be attempted only in the case of the Harappan period because of our own ignorance of that culture. It stands out differently from what is known about the period before it—and what came afterwards.
The original Vedic period could have been around this time, but the absence of Vedic monuments from that time is a major problem confronted by antiquarians. It is possible, as many historians argue, that the primary construction material of the Vedic Indian was wood. This would have rotted away, leaving nothing to look at and wonder, save the great texts composed in the period.
Well-chronicled history began only after this, perhaps starting with the historically detailed life of the Buddha, the well-chronicled invasion of Alexander and the evidence available about the Mauryan empires. The oldest remains of man-built stone structures, save the Harappan brick cities, date back to this era.
The decline of Buddhism and the revival of the Vedic religion were evident even at the time of the Guptas and Harsha, but since classification requires landmarks, one may be permitted to start the Hindu period with Sankara. Politically, empires of Macedonian or Mauryan scale vanished during this period; in their place came up innumerable smaller ones, building temples which exist to this day and forts which have since crumbled or been built over. The end of this period is well-marked in the north, with the Ghazni-Ghori invasions and the erection of the Qutab Minar. But in the south the Hindu period continued with the Cholas and later Chalukyas till the fall of the temple-prolific Vijayanagar empire.
The end of the sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal period is historically marked on the battle of Panipat, but politically the sultanate continued well into the Mughal era. The Mughals were even routed for a while by the Suri sultans, and the Khiljis and Tughlaqs continued to rule over various parts of central
Though the first European churches were built by the Portuguese during or even before the Mughals, politically the European period began only after the decline of the Mughal empire and the battle of Plassey that laid the foundation of the British empire in
Going through the pattern of monuments that each culture wanted to last, one may wonder: did each of them want a particular type of monument to last. Of course they all had palaces, forts, shrines and so on. But we hardly ever see a Buddhist period fort or a Hindu period palace. Apparently, each culture chose one or two types of monuments only to last. Thus the Buddhist built their caityas and cave temples to last, the Hindu period kings wanted their temples to last. The sultans wanted their tombs and mosques to last, the Mughals their forts, palaces and of course tombs and mosques, and the Europeans their churches and state buildings.
The one common item in this list is the shrine. Call it caitya, temple, mosque or church, every period built it to last. Nowhere else in the world does one find so many of them, and in such variety, ‘enshrining’ a spirit that has survived millennia.
Writing on the walls
Proto-historic period: Pictures of his dance, along with scenes of his hunt, have been preserved in various caves
By R. Prasannan
History textbooks start the story of
The cave paintings of India belong to various periods—from proto-historic sketches of the Neolithic man found at Edakkal caves in Kerala to Bhimbetka to the ‘eastman colour’ productions at Ajanta and Ellora which belong partly to the Buddhist and partly to the Hindu period. Our concern here is only about the art and architecture of the protohistoric Indians, some of whom lived before the Harappans, some of whom were their contemporaries, and some of whom are our ‘Adivasi’ neighbours.
Historically, the existing paintings were all wonders left by Neolithic man. The Old Stoner, or the paleolith, could neither make pottery nor fire. This man, the Old Stoner, left hardly anything for us to look at and awe, except a few chipped stones which only the trained eye of an archaeologist can pick out from the rubble it is found amidst.
So the wonder that was
How was the New Stoner different from his great grandfather of the old stone? The Old Stoner was essentially a hunter-gatherer. The new stone man, on the other hand, cultivated land, grew fruits, domesticated the cow, produced fire and made pots, first by hand and then with the potter’s wheel.
The potter’s wheel, thus, was the first complicated machine, or machine-tool, ever invented by man. Everything else before it was just a straight tool for carving, cleaving or throwing. The wheel, on the other hand, was a machine-tool, which did not carve or cleave, but produced something it did not touch.
The wheel and the crop from the farmlands gave the New Stoner something that is considered essential for the flowering of culture—spare time for hobbies. Some kind of crude music was obvioulsy born then, maybe by imitating wild or domesticated animals. There is no evidence of the New Stoner’s music. But we know that he danced. For pictures of his dance, along with scenes of his hunt, have been preserved in various caves in many parts of
But the biggest wonder about the New Stoner is his burial practice. World over, the Neolithic men built dolmens of three or more stones carrying a huge roof stone. Quite a few of these sepulchres belong chronologically to the post-Harappa period, but then the culture that built them was Neolithic.
Very few of the Neolithic settlements have been discovered. But there are clues as to what happened to them. For example, below the major Harappan finds of Kalibangan, archaeologists have found traces of a pre-Harappan settlement. The Kalibangans built a mud-brick wall over the deposits of a pre-Harappan settlement. In that case, it could be surmised that the Harappans were merely great grandsons of the New Stoner.
Situated: At a height of 1,000m on Ambukutty Mala near Ambalavayal, Wayanad, Kerala
Historic significance: A habitat of Neolithic (i.e., late Stone Age, 4000 BC-1700 BC) people. One of the very few places in
By Deepak Tiwari
The rock shelters of Bhimbetka present life of prehistoric man in vivid colour. Just 45 km south of
The paintings have retained their glory despite their age because natural colours—made of minerals, vegetable dyes, roots and animal fat—were used. The Zoo Rock depicts elephants, sambars, bisons and deer taking flight; another shows naked hunters with bows, arrows, swords and shields. Paintings, obviously of a later age, have men clothed and riding horses and elephants.
Archaeologist V.S. Wakankar of
Bhimbetka derives its name from Bhim of the epic Mahabharat. It is said that the Pandavas spent one year in exile in this region and the Shiva temple at Bhojpur is said to have been where Bhim worshipped Lord Shiva.
Most of the rock shelters have recently been covered by iron railings for protection. From a distance, the entrance to the shelter looks like a worn-out fort, but let that not deter an interested historian.
Situated: 46km south of
Historic significance: Is home to over 600 rock shelters belonging to the Neolithic age. There are paintings in about 500 caves that depict the life of the prehistoric cave-dwellers. Executed mainly in red and white with the occasional use of green and yellow, the themes are usually taken from hunting, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animals fighting, honey collection, decoration of bodies, disguises, masking and household scenes. Popular religious and ritual symbols and animals can also be seen.
Brick and script
Harappan period: Like the Spartans, they ossified into non-existence
By R. Prasannan
Till recently, the cities remained like a nowhere land—seeming to have appeared out of the blue, and like a gypsy camp, vanished into the blue. Strange as it may seem, dozens of theories abound about the destruction of the Harappan cities. Pioneering excavators like Sir Mortimer Wheeler theorised that they were Dravidians and were destroyed by the rampaging Aryans, as described in the Vedic adventure stories of Indra the Purandara (fort-breaker). Since the cities looked like exclusivist forts, and since signs of quick destruction (like dead bodies with wound marks) were found in certain cities, this theory gained currency. But even Wheeler, who propounded the Aryan invasion theory, is said to have had second thoughts, especially after it was found that some of the wounds found on the dead bodies had healed long before the victim died.
Theories have also been centred on great tectonic changes that forced the life-sustaining rivers of Sarasvati and
Today, most archaeologists believe that they did not just vanish into the blue. Rather, they declined slowly with the gradual drying of the river basins they flourished on. As they moved further and further from the Indus-Sarasvati basin towards central
So the decline of the Harappan civilisation is no longer a mystery. But the rise of the civilisation is. Of late, archaeologists have unearthed pre-Harappan settlements in sites like Kalibangan, but till more evidence is unearthed, the rise of the civilisation would have to remain an enigma.
The biggest mystery about the Harappans is not their cities or drainages, but their script. There have been as many interpretations of the script as there have been epigraphists in
And the biggest wonder about the Harappan cities is, simply put, their brick. It had a standard size, be it in Mohenjodaro or
The amazing level of standardisation, seen throughout the mature Harappan period, raises the question: Was there some sort of a central authority that dictated the standards? Nothing is known about the political culture of the Harappans, except conjectures around the famous terracota image of the ‘priest-king’, clad in a triangular robe.
The fact is that throughout history, such standardisations have been centrally ordered, and enforced. Recent history of city-building, gives such evidence, especially from
The later analogies leads us to a supposition that the Harappans too could have been ruled by an iron hand (an anachronism, since iron had not been discovered) that set not only brick standards, but also how to build cities. Every city had the same layout that conformed to a yet-to-be-discovered centralised pattern.
If that be so, it also leads us to some clue to the decline. Everything about this civilisation shows a kind of exclusivism, or even an unwillingness to change with the times. Indeed, they did improve on their technology (they invented bone-concrete bricks when it was found that old pure mud bricks were fragile in earthquakes), but were unwilling to adapt to changed circumstances. Even after they declined and moved into central Indian habitations, they produced cheap imitations of their once-great pottery. In other words, like the Spartans of Greece, they ossified into non-existence.
KUNAL
Situated: On the banks of the mythical Sarasvati in Fatehbad, Haryana
Historic significance: Is an archaelogical village compared to the other Harappan ‘towns’ like Mohenjodaro. The artefacts unearthed suggest a Vedic culture. They include seals and terracotta cakes. There are triangle-shaped terracotta cakes that symbolise fertility in the Rig Veda. A painting with a horse and pipal motif found here are both associated with the Vedic civilisation. Kunal has three phases of the pre-Harappan culture. In the earliest, people lived in pits. In the second, moulded mud bricks were used. In the third , bricks were used to make square and rectangular houses.
By Anosh Malekar
It was not only in Mesopotamia and in the
Of all the
About 450km by road from Ahmedabad, Khadir is one of the larger bets (islands) in the Greater Rann of Kutch. On reaching the taluka headquarters at Rapar, the drive leads northwest to a lonesome causeway surrounded by salt deposits shimmering under the early morning sun. The archaeological site looks indistinguishable from the rest of the island except for the wire boundary and the familiar ASI board for protected monuments. The locals reveal there is nothing but stones and wells out there.
Till as late as 1990, when excavations began, the bland, flat-peaked hillock was covered in scrubs and boulders. Today, there are signs of large-scale excavations, exposing a brick structure with intricate steps, pathways, terraces and broken walls.
It is not always as deserted as during a typically hot summer. Between December and March, hired workers led by a leader of the ASI excavations, Dr R.S. Bisht, explain the uncovered details to interested tourists.
Dholavira must have been a huge and thriving city some 50 centuries ago where textiles, jewellery and pottery were made. It was well-fortified against passing nomads. The fortress wall runs all the way round the 48-hectare city. The embattled ‘middle town’ measures about 350m east-west and 200m north-south and rises 8.6m from the ground. A concentric wall separates the lower town, which could have been the industrial area, from the main residential area.
The built-up area of the lower town occupies nearly two-thirds of the eastern half of the city, attaining a height of about 7.5m. Within this was a third wall which protected the acropolis and the palace.
Beyond, are other structures which have not been fully excavated as yet. Part of this is the cemetery and the variety of funerary structures which leads you to two conclusions. One, the ancient Dholavirans believed in after-life. Two, the citizens of this great city belonged to a number of ethnic groups, each with distinctive customs.
The trading civilisation must have attracted people from across the seas. You can imagine Dholavira, a pink-and-white city with its walls, roads, floors and possibly even the roofs of dwellings glinting with baked colours, attracting ships from the northwest and the northeast. And when these foreigners moored at the wharfs, they must have met merchants, traders and travellers dressed in distinctive costumes, speaking different languages, all assessing the citadel’s wealth and weaknesses.
Oldest sign-board: A board with signs in the Harappan script
One of the greatest attractions must have been the huge reservoirs between the city walls that held an amazing 2.5 lakh cubic metres of water—a fantastic achievement in an area known for its aridity today. There are so many of these great reservoirs that it looks like a complex of artificial lakes.
The main source of water was the swift-moving, rain-fed streams on which check dam were built. Water was also diverted from the rooftops into an intricate system of drains with vents, which allowed air to escape without impeding the flow. Dholavira can be ranked as a truly remarkable city on the basis of its water-harvesting systems alone.
But there was much more. Dholavirans were skilled in working with copper, stone, beads, shells and ceramics. And it was not all work and no play. There was an enormous recreational ground in the heart of the town, with stepped tiers indicating a public amphitheatre. There was much more to see and speculate upon. But the unique inscription of ten large-sized signs of the Harappan script was fully covered in tin sheets to avoid further damage. The consolation was in the form of a reproduction of the world’s oldest signboard with 10 large "letters" in their undecipherable script, on the walls of the ASI office.
The present generation of Dholavirans, who live in the modern-day village of 5,000 residents, have no insights to offer. They are too busy drawing water at noon, not from the
DHOLAVIRA
Situated: In The Khadir island of Kutch,
Historic Significance: Locally known as Kotada, it is one of the two largest settlements in
KALIBANGAN
Situated: 205km from
Historic significance: Is a 5,000-year-old pre-historic Harappan site. Architecture and design of the city are similar to those of Mohenjodaro, with streets that intersect at right angles, drainage system, houses made of baked bricks and bathrooms that had water pipes and taps. Subsequent excavations have unearthed relics of an even more ancient culture, dubbed as pre-Harappan.
By Anosh Malekar
Adockyard, 84km in southwest
Remnants of the Harappan/Indus valley civilisation at Lothal, near Dholka, were discovered rather late, after
Maritime trade flourished here between 2400 BC and 1900 BC. It is believed that the Harappans came down from the Sindh valley to the southern sea coast around 2400 BC. in search of fertile land and potential ports. They developed Lothal as their most important port and consequently, as a great city similar to Mohenjodaro.
In the early days, the ancient dock was not very far from the sea shore, as it appears today, and was navigable through the Bhogavo river. Its proximity to the sea, the river and the hazards of floods prompted the Harappan builders of Lothal to create a boundary wall outside the town and to build dwellings on a high platform of sun-dried bricks.
It was from the acropolis (known so because of its importance as a seat of power), that the block supervisors observed the movement of ships in the dock and hauling of cargo in the wharf. What one sees today from atop the acropolis is a planned city with an intricate underground drainage system, wells, and houses with attached baths. Divided into two parts, the lower town with well-paved streets, comprising a bazaar and residential areas, and a warehouse on a plinth, can be seen.
The huge dock to the east, said to be superior to those of Phoenicians and Romans, is a treat to the eye. An inland dockyard made of bricks with a spill channel and a 7m-wide inlet channel was connected to the Bhogavo river which flows into the
Bead-making was the most important industry here. This is evident from the rings and bangles in the museum. Lothal also specialised in steatite micro beads which were used to make necklaces, amulets and waistbands. Also on display at the museum are shell and terracotta ornaments from that time. Seals played an important part in the Harappan economy and more than 200 have survived in Lothal, many of which are masterpieces of craftsmanship, getting pride of place in the museum.
The oft-portrayed animals are the mythical unicorn, elephant, mountain goat, tiger and the mythical elephant bull. The Harappans of Lothal worshipped the fire god and the sea god, but worship of the goddess was not given importance. The relics—a mummy, an Assyrian’s head, a seal with five ships sketched on it and seals of the Arabian and Sumerian cities and muslin and indigo found in the Egyptian pyramids—suggest that Lothal had overseas trade relations with Abbas, Bushayar, Bahrain, Susa and Sumer. It is said the ancient sea-farers of Lothal are the ancestors of the Bania community and they have bequeathed the legacy of sea-faring to the people of
The civilisation at Lothal survived till 1500 BC, though it vanished from the north in 1600 BC. Today, it harbours 20m deep debris. It measures 284m north-south and 228m east-west. The remains suggest that it must have extended 300m away from the mound. The excavation site consists of the mound, disrobed for display, and a museum with the archaeological finds. The museum is open only between 10 a.m. and 5 p.m. from Saturday to Thursday. The excavations stopped long ago and there are no archaeologists around. Despite the hot weather, one can enjoy the experience. However, do not expect any enthusiasm in modern
LOTHAL SITE AND DOCK
Situated: On the banks of the Sarasvati’s banks, 85 km from Ahmedabad,
Historic significance: Is a 4,500-year-old well-laid city divided into two parts: the upper part or the acropolis where the rulers of the city lived and the lower part meant for the commoners. It had a scientific drainage system, paved roads and a bath for every house. Some of them were double storied. Lothal’s dockyard was architecturally advanced, with berthing facility and a 13m-wide channel to facilitate entry of ships. It was also an active business centre, linked with
Faith, science and stupas
Buddhist period: Pax-Mauryana helped cultureflourish
By R. Prasannan
The three-horned ‘lord of the beasts’ sealing from the Harappan period has been variously interpreted as a proto-Siva (Pasupati) or as a proto-Buddha in meditation. The problem with the latter interpretaion is that this period definitely pre-dates the Buddha. Since no other evidence is available about this, we date our Budhist period purely along archaeological lines. By all historical evidence, Siddhartha Buddha (there could have been many Buddhas earlier, going by Buddhist tradition) was born in 544 BC in Lumbini, the republican
Mediaeval splendour: The
Apparently, the city-states of the Himalayan region were still following the republican order, when great political changes were taking place in the plains of the Indus, deserted by the Harappans a thousand years earlier. In 520 BC, that is when Siddhartha was 14 years old, Persian emperor Darius crossed the Indus, thus subjecting
So the Buddhist period saw not only the rise of kingdoms, but also the incredibly rapid rise of empires. Within a century of the Buddha’s death, Alexander, ancient world’s greatest empire-builder, had invaded
Chandragupta’s grandson Asoka used the Buddhist tenet of non-violence to consolidate his empire, just like Akbar used Hindu-Muslim amity to neutralise rebellious tendencies in provinces. The non-violent empire became the basis of the state structure, with violence resorted to only to defend itself from external aggressors.
Pax-Mauryana also helped culture flourish. Great stupas were built in this period, as were numerous viharas, caityas and pagodas. There was a lot of cultural expansionism as well as intake. If Buddhist ideals were propagated to the far east, a lot was taken also from the Greeks and later the Scythians and others ruling over
Even after the fall of the Mauryas, Magadhan dominance continued under the Sungas. Interestingly, the first recorded military coup took place in this period. Pushyamitra Sunga, commander-in-chief of the Magadhan army, killed his emperor Brihadratha and took power in 184 BC. Two centuries later in the northwest, Kanishka, the Kushana ruler, was suffocated to death under a quilt at the instance of his minister Mathara, who gave the throne to Huvishka.
The cultural interactions weren’t all that peaceful either. Antiochus the Great of Syria invaded northwestern
Signs of a revival were seen soon after the decline of the Mauryas. The defeat of the Scythians by a fabled Vikaramaditya must have marked the beginning of the decline of Buddhism as the state religion. During the Gupta age, both the faith and Buddhism flourished side by side. The Guptas also attempted at imperial consolidation, what with Samudragrupta’s arms crossing far deep into the
Technologically, the Gupta period marks the greatest achievements in metallurgy, as evidenced from the Gupta iron pillars still standing without rust. The Gupta and post-Gupta period was also the golden age of science, mathematics and astronomy in
By the time of Harsha, Hinduism had also been reviving. Apparently its coexistence with Buddhism till then, was beginning to crack. A sort of rigidity had set in the souls of both.
AJANTA/ELLORA
Situated: In the Sahyadri Hills, near
Historic significance: Is a site of temples carved within caves of the
RATNAGIRI
Tantric BuddhismBy Tathagata Bhattacharya
The Ratnagiri monastery’s isolation on a hilltop is striking. Built in 5 A.D., Ratnagiri is part of the ancient Buddhist quadrangle in Orissa’s Jajpur district. Of the other three, the monasteries in Udayagiri and Lalitgiri were built in 6 A.D. and the one in Langudi dates to 3 B.C.
The discovery of exquisite stone sculptures and brass statues of Buddhist deities like
Ratnagiri’s stupas, two quadrangular monasteries, a courtyard, cells and verandah with a sanctum that enshrines a colossal Buddha are impressive. So is the temple with a curvilinear tower, the only one of its kind in Orissa.
But what is more awe-inspiring about its architecture is perhaps the monastery’s drainage system which drains out rainwater from the complex even today. Lalitgiri was a seat of Buddhist learning till 16 A.D. Today ruins of the monastery complex seem like an amphitheatre with a giant Chaitya in the centre surrounded by small stupas carved with figures of the Buddha (photo on top).
By Shubham Shukla
Feng Shui may be Chinese but one of its symbols believed to usher in prosperity has Indian roots. At least that is what Chandrama Giri, a tourist guide in Sanchi, claims, pointing to the pot-bellied dwarfs carved in a gateway to the stupas. "These dwarfs are also known as the Laughing Buddhas and the concept was propagated from Sanchi," he says.
Giri’s theory may be debatable, but experts have established that Sanchi was a prominent Buddhist centre during emperor Asoka’s times. His son and daughter are believed to have stayed here before going to
The history of Sanchi dates to 5 BC. After the Buddha’s death, eight kings, who were also his followers, laid claim to his ashes and bones. When a war seemed inevitable, sage Drona is believed to have intervened. The remains were divided into eight parts and each ruler erected a stupa.
In 3 BC, Asoka reopened these stupas and divided the relics into 84,000 parts and got numerous stupas built all over the country. Later, in 2 BC and 1 BC the Sungas and the Satavahanas got more stupas and gateways built in Sanchi. Local people believe that it was Aurangzeb’s attack in 12 AD that led to the downfall of the centre.
Nevertheless, the beauty of the stupas is intact. Stupa number one consists of the relics of the Buddha and has four gateways beautifully carved by the ‘Vidisha danta karya karigar’ (craftspersons of Vidisha, which is around 10km from Sanchi). Some stones bear names of the donors, pointing to the involvement of citzens in the building of the structure.
The famed Asoka pillar is near the southern gateway; Sanchi, a book by the Archaeological Survey of India, says that a local zamindar had used a part of the pillar as a sugar cane crusher. In Sanchi, one can also find the remains of monasteries. Though there is nothing in the texts to show that Buddha visited Sanchi and there is no mention of this Buddhist sanctuary in Chinese traveller Huen Tsang’s records, monks believe that the Buddha walked from Bodhgaya to Sanchi.
That perhaps explains the flow of Buddhist pilgrims to Sanchi from all over the world, including
The monuments also depict the tenets of Buddhism. For instance, the subject of the carvings on one gateway is the Buddha’s emphasis on spiritualism rather than on rituals. Another gateway depicts incidents from all the lives of the Buddha. The Laughing Buddhas on another gateway smile invitingly. Follow the path for what lay ahead is innocent joy, they seem to say.
SANCHI
Situated: 55km from
Historic significance: Was an ancient seat of Buddhist learning and place of pilgrimage where emperor Asoka erected the Great Stupa and the Asoka Pillar in the middle of the 3rd century BC. The stupa, the oldest Buddhist monument in the world, represents Buddha through symbols—the lotus represents his birth, the tree his enlightenment, the wheel his first sermon and the stupa his nirvana. The Asoka Pillar, with its four lion-head stumps, is situated close to the southern gateway of the stupa. Though similar to the intricately carved pillar in Sarnath, the lions do not support a ‘Wheel of Law’ (Dharmachakra). A unique feature of this pillar is its brilliant polish. The
By Tapash Ganguly
It is hard to believe that
A walk among the ruins of the university, which consists of 6 brick temples and 11 monasteries spread over 1sq. km, transports one back to an era when
An era when India was a place of scholarship: Visitors walk among the ruins of Nalanda
According to Pali scriptures, the Buddha often visited Nalanda, which was a prosperous region in the 5th century BC. On his way from Rajagaha (Rajgir) to Pataliputra (
Mahavira, the great Jain tirthankar (teacher), also visited Nalanda. Nagarjuna, the famous 2nd century Mahayana philosopher, studied at Nalanda and later became its high priest. Other teachers, Suvishnu, Aryadeva, Asanga and Vasubandhu, also rose to fame in the 5th century. It was under the patronage of Gupta rulers that Nalanda flourished as a university centre.
It housed 10,000 students—from as far as Java and
Excavations by the ASI, which has made a proposal to the Unesco to include Nalanda in the World Heritage list, from 1915-37 and 1974-82 exposed the remains of the brick temples on the west and monasteries on the east of a 100-ft wide road. The monasteries are almost identical in layout and appearance, with rows of rooms around a common verandah, a secret chamber for keeping valuables, a kitchen, a well and a granary. The rooms, according to historians, were once the hostel complex for teachers and students. It has stone slabs, which were used as beds, and recesses in the wall to keep books or night lamps.
The large, imposing main temple, at the southern end of the row of temples, is surrounded by votive stupas. It has four corner towers with niches which hold beautiful stucco images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattas, the state before the Buddha attained enlightenment.
The excavation has unearthed many sculptures in stone, bronze and stucco. Significant are the sculptures of the Buddha in different postures—avalokiteswara, manjusri, tara, prajnaparamita, marichi, jambhala—and the images of Brahminical deities like Vishnu, Siva-Parvati, Mahisasur-Mardini, Ganesa and Surya. Other noteworthy discoveries include murals, copper plates from the rule of Samudragupta (350-375 AD) , inscriptions, seals, plaques and coins from Kumaragupta’s reign (413-455 AD).
NALANDA
Situated: 99km from
Historic significance: Was one of the most renowned Buddhist universities in
A time of great temples
The Hindu period: In south
By R. Prasannan
Socially, the Hindu revival was primarily propelled from the south. In the eighth century there was a new-found assertiveness on the part of the Vedic faiths, by now consolidated by Sankara, who had flourished in an age of political uncertainty. With his great organisational skill, he consolidated the warring Vedic faiths into some sort of a monolith. Buddhism was more or less philosophically demolished, and a new faith, which had landed on the shores of
Though there were no overwhelming empires during the so-called Hindu period, there were quite a few illustrious dynasties ruling over various parts of
Architecturally, this was the busiest period. If Buddhist art confined itself to cave temples, paintings and sculptures, the Hindu period saw the rise of the great temples. Most of the great temples that we see today in
There was also a tendency—which some historians call neo-Vikramadityanism—of harking back to some hoary past. Quite a few kings, on both sides of the Vindhyas, called themselves Vikramadityas in this age, and some even initiated their own Vikrama eras leading to today’s confusion about the original Indian calendar.
Unfortunately, save for the Chola invasion of overseas territories, much of the Vikramadityan spirit was spent on fighting each other. Within a hundred years of the death of Harsha, quite a few dynasties arose and fell in the north. But in the south, there still was some sort of imperial centralism. Though there were the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Cholas and so on, they largely succeeded each other, admittedly after much bloodshed, thus ensuring that there was only one paramount power at any given point of time.
Towards the end of this period in the north, the Arabs had been reaching out to
In the south, however, there was consolidation mainly under the Cholas. Only after their decline could the sultanate, under the Khiljis, cross over to the south and help establish various minor sultanates. Yet Vijayanagar, under the Tuluva dynasty, survived there in splendid isolation till the battle of Talikota in 1565. Strangely, the Bhakti movement also had its origins in this period after Advaita, and flourished while Islam was overrunning the north.
The architectural difference in time-scale has been well explained by J.C. Harle in The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent: "The known artistic history of South India, with very few exceptions, does not begin until the seventh century, whereas by this time in the north there were monuments nearly a thousand years old, and the greatest heights of achievement has perhaps already been scaled."
KHAJURAHO
Situated: In MP, 620 km from
Historic significance: Houses temples from 9th to 13th centuries, built in the Indo-Aryan Nagara style with erotica as the dominating theme. It was once the religious capital of the Chandela Rajputs, a Hindu dynasty that ruled between 10th and 12th centuries. The temples were built over a span of a 100 years and enclosed by a wall with eight gates, each flanked by two golden palm trees. There were originally over 80 Hindu temples, of which only 22 stand. They are divided into three groups: the western group dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu; the northern group has Vaishnava temples and the southeastern group consists of Jain temples. The oldest of these temples, dating to 900 AD is the
K0NARK
To the glory of the sun
By Tathagatha Bhattacharya
If you thought big and beautiful did not go together, the
The temple, dedicated to the sun god, was built to resemble a giant chariot with 24 wheels pulled by seven horses. Konark is an expression of happiness and all the figurines are smiling. A curious element is the figure of a giraffe. According to folklore, Narasimhadeva and his queen brought back a giraffe that was gifted to them on a visit to an African country.
What sets the Konark sun temple apart is its scientific and geometrical precision. The name Konark is derived from kon meaning angle and arka meaning sun. The natmandir (dancing hall)—one of the few surviving structures—has three doors by which the first rays of the sun would enter the main temple and hit the feet of the god enshrined inside. The wheels of the chariot are a sundial. Each wheel has eight hands denoting the division of a day into eight hours. There are small hands for each half-hour and points to denote minutes.
Apart from the natmandir, the jagmohan (assembly hall) remains. Of the main temple, which was 227 ft tall, only a small part remains. According to one legend, the main temple had a powerful magnet on its top that used to disrupt British ship movements, so the British used cannon fire to tear down the temple. Another version suggests that Kalapahar, the 16th century Afghan invader, destroyed it.
To the north of the giant chariot, there is a smaller temple dedicated to Sandhya and Chaya, the wives of the sun god.
By D.I. Ravindran
It is believed that the shadow of the majestic Brihadeswara temple in Thanjavur never falls down. Originally known as Rajarajeshwaram Udaya Paramasamy, it is widely believed that a visit to the temple by a person in power would spell doom. it may be for that reason that Tamil Nadu Chief Minister J. Jayalalithaa has never visited this temple, despite being an ardent devotee.
But the temple—or the big temple, as it is commonly referred to—has more to it than the so-called jinx. Built by Raja Raja Chola, this 11th century temple that occupies a large portion of Sivganga fort, has been endorsed as a living monument by the Archeological Survey of India, which has also taken over control of the temple.
The temple occupies an area measuring 800 inches by 400 inches and the total area of the inner courtyard, which is surrounded by a cloister, is 500 inches by 250 inches. Paintings belonging to three dynasties—Cholas (11th century), Nayaks (16th and 17th centuries) and Marathas (18th century)—contribute to the artistic dimension of the temple.
As one enters, there are two gopurams. The first one is called Keralanthagan Thiruvayil, marking the victory of Raja Raja Chola over Kerala when it was ruled by Bhaskara Ravivarma while the second is the Rajarajeswara Thiruvayil. The former is a square, massive five-tiered structure. There are two sub-shrines in the first floor with the sannidhis of Dakshinamurthy and Brahma with a beard, which is unique. Rajaraja Thiruvayil (the gate of Raja Raja), the second gateway, is a three-tiered granite structure. In the raised upapeeta, there are beautifully sculptured scenes from mythology. In the eastern face of the gopuram, above these Puranic panels, are two monolith dwarapalas, measuring 20 feet.
An 11-foot wide inner wall encases the sanctum that enshrines the presiding deity—a massive 13-foot high Shivalinga. The lower half of the shreepada is made of nine pieces of lotus carvings while the upper half is decorated with the urdhwa padma, a 60-foot circle six feet in length in single stone on which linga bana (the top portion of linga) stands. The entrance of the sanctum is guarded by the massive Nandi (the sacred bull) and Mahakala.
There are 10 ayudha purushas (armed warriors) in the southern and northern entrances of the vestibule (mukha mandapa) but only five of them are in good condition. The gigantic Nandi—3.66m in height, 5.94m in length and 2.59m in breadth—is built within a plain 16-pillared mandapam.
The Brihadeeswari shrine, located opposite to the Nandi mandapa is a later addition by a Pandya king in the 13th century. Vijaya Nagara Perumal, a Nayak king during the 15th century, built a large entrance to this shrine. The inner ceiling of the shrine is adorned with the Maratha paintings of Serfoji period. The mandapam and the Bull were contributed by the Nayaks in the 16th-17th centuries.
Renovations have been in progress since the beginning of the 20th century. The latest addition before the archaeology department took over was the Karuvurar shrine. Karuvurtthevar, who wrote Thiruvisaippa (sacred musical verses) during Raja Raja Chola’s reign, was believed to have persuaded the emperor to build this great temple.
Varahi Amman, the deity of this temple, attracts a large crowd. People believe that the deity protects them from evil. Though the shrine is small, the deity occupies a large part of the sanctum. The two other places that house this deity are in Kasi and Arakkonam in Chennai. Standing tall against the ravages of time, this temple is an enduring monument which is testimony to the greatness of Tamil rulers.
Situated: In Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Historic significance: Is the world’s first granite temple built by Chola king Raja Raja in honour of Lord Shiva in 1009 AD. The
BISHNUPUR
Situated: In Bankura district of West
Historic significance: Was the capital city of the Mallas (7th - 19th century) and is a repository of terracotta temples. The oldest brick temple is a Rasmancha with an elongated pyramidal tower surrounded by hut-shaped turrets, built in the late 16th century by King Beera Hambira. Terracotta gained further momentum under King Raghunath Singh, who built the Pancha Ratna Temple of Shyam Rai and the Jorebangla Temple of Keshta Rai. The
By
Legend has it that the monkey kings of yore—in the
Hampi, one of the greatest metropolises of mediaeval India, was set in the midst of natural rocks on three sides—some of the most spectacular and oldest rocks in the Deccan—and the river Tungabhadra, flowing to its north. These rocks acted like natural walls and the gaps between them were filled to complete the fortification of the city.
Founded by Harihara and Bukka in 1336 AD, the Vijayanagar empire was spread over Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Hampi, the capital of Vijayanagar, in Karnataka’s
The Virupaksha temple, which pre-dates Vijayanagar, is the only living monument in Hampi. Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the temple is still used for worship. The Ratha Beedi (
The Vijay Vittala temple, the Lotus Mahal which is a synthesis of Hindu and Islamic architecture, the Queen’s Bath—a large square structure with a plain exterior and ornate interiors, the elephant stables, the recently-unearthed Pushkarni, which is a tiered structure crafted from rectangular pieces of granite, Hazara Rama temple, Mahanavami Dibba and the imposing statue of Ugranarasimha or Lakshmi Narasimha are must-sees in a tourist’s list. The Vijaya Vittala temple with its musical pillars and the stone chariot (the wheels of this single-stone sculpture can be rotated) are testimony to the architectural and artistic skills of the period.
While most of the structures are in ruins, the Lotus Mahal, the Queen’s
While the popular view among historians is that Vijayanagar fell in the Talikota war in 1565 AD to the Bahamanis, some believe that Hampi was reduced to rubble because of the clash between the Vaishnavite and the Shaivite sects within the kingdom. This theory, for evidence, holds good as one notices the destruction of Vaishnava temples and idols as against the well-preserved Shaivite temples in Hampi. While the Hazara Rama temple, Vijaya Vittala temple, Ugranarasimha and some others are ravaged, the presiding deity in the Virupaksha temple is still worshipped. Krishnadeva Raya, the greatest of the Vijayanagar kings, who descended from the Tuluva lineage, made Vijaya Vittala the presiding deity of the royal family whereas his predecessors from the Sangama and Salva lineages had Virupaksha as their presiding deity. Yet another theory indicates that the marginalised tribesmen plundered Vijayanagar after the news of King Rama Raya’s defeat in the Talikota war reached the capi! tal. As Abdul Razak put it: "The eye has not seen nor the ear heard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth." And, thus ended the glory of Hampi.
HAMPI
Situated: On the banks of Tungabhadra river, northern Karnataka
Historic significance: Was the seat of the famed Vijayanagar empire from 1336 to 1565—bounded by the Tungabhadra river on one side and surrounded by granite cliffs on the other three sides. The city is identified with the mythological Kishkindha, the monkey kingdom in the Ramayana. The city is famous for its palaces and temples, especially the
By Tariq Bhat
A crucible of cultural traditions and religious practices,
Historian Kalhana has mentioned in his book, Rajatarangni, about sun-god worship and the existence of an important temple dedicated to it at Mattan. The hamlet of Mattan, 10 km from the south
The temple, however, began to be known as Martand all over the world. The ruins of the temple in Kehribal village today speak volumes about the glorious past of the monument built on an elevated plateau.
Local people call the
Martand remained an active religious place till the end of the 14th century when according to historians it was destroyed by a fanatic, Suhabhatta, during the reign of Sikander (1389-1413 AD). Thereafter, it never regained its grandeur.
The main temple is located in a spacious oblong courtyard enclosed by a raised basement supporting a roofed colonnade with an array of cells behind. Unlike other extant ancient temples, Martand has two double chambered side wings flanking the mandapa, a novel and special character of its own.
Villagers are ignorant of the history of the monument. There is no official to look after it or any guide to inform visitors about the history of the great place. The floriculture department has laid a big park in front of the monument. The famous temple is on the verge of collapse.
Situated: In
Historic significance: Signifies a departure from Buddhism and acceptance of the Brahmanical creed. The regularly spaced medallions, the frequent use of pilaster, and the pediment motif, signify a touch of the classical west. The capitals of the pillars that support cornices have something Doric about them, while their moulded bases are of attic type. The encircling colonnade have a Greek touch. The mural sculpture on the walls displays the influence of the Pala rulers of
MAHABALIPURAM
Situated: 60 km south of Chennai
Historic significance: Was a 7th century port city of the Pallavas, named after the demon king Mahabali. It has various monuments built between the 7th and the 9th centuries, most of which are rock-cut and monolithic. They constitute the early stages of Dravidian architecture where Buddhist elements are prominent. Recently a major find was made of a large number of underwater ruins, thought to date back to 6000 BC, older than
The domes of Delhi
Sultanate period: Their finest contribution to monument-building
was bringing the dome
By R. Prasannan
The second millennium began for
The Slaves consolidated under Iltutmish who severed his links with the caliphate, and consolidated the state of
The Khiljis declined after the death of Alauddin. Taking advantage of palace intrigues, the Tughlaq governor of
The Tughlaqs had one more moment of glory when Feroze Shah ascended the throne. He not only conquered some of the lost territories, but also built monuments in dozens. Much of what one sees today of sultanate architecture in
A new menace now appeared on the northwest frontier in the form of Timur the Lame in 1398. He ransacked
The sultanate period wasn’t all dark and sinister. There were quite a few illustrious kings in this period, like Zainulabdin of Kashmir who came as a John the Baptist to Akbar’s Christ. Even the ferocious Alauddin tolerated Hindu kings, and even encouraged his son to marry a Hindu princess. Conversions and reconversions were frequent and many of the conversions were for political expediency as was that of Jadudas, son of ‘King’ Ganesh of Bengal.
A common misconception is that most of the Islamic architecture in
Culturally, the sultanate period was a natural succession to the earlier Hindu period. The fame of
The longest-lasting contribution of the sultans was to attempt at consolidating the Indian state within
In the lap of power
By Prince Mathews Thomas
When Lady Willingdon decided to make a garden around the
Next to it is the Sheesh Gumbad or the dome of glass, so named for the glazed blue tiles, few of which have survived. Giving a semblance of being double-storeyed, the Gumbad combines features of Hindu and Islamic architecture. Another product from the Sikander Lodi reign, the Gumbad has its share of several unknown graves. To the south of the gardens is its oldest structure, the tomb of Muhammad Shah, third ruler of the Sayyid dynasty.
The kings would be happy that their tombs are today located in an elite enclave, housing diplomats and government personnel. The area retains its strings of power.
JAUNPUR FRIDAY MOSQUE
Situated: Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh
Historic significance: Built in 1470 on a 6m high plinth by Husayn Shah (1458-1483), the last ruler of the Sharqi dynasty, the mosque is also called Bari Masjid or Jami Masjid. It consists of a long rectangular prayer hall centered around a square sanctuary. The sanctuary is covered by a dome that measures 11.4m in diameter. On either side are barrel-vaulted galleries that are accessed from three arched openings along the courtyard facade.
Tall and stately
By Prince Mathews Thomas
Eight hundred years after it was built, the Qutab Minar still is the most dominant feature of
Unfortunately, the man who visualised the wonder did not live long enough to enjoy the city’s view from the tower-top. Qutbuddin Aibek died when the first storey was completed. The Minar, for which the foundation was laid in 1199, was said to have been built to celebrate victory over the Rajputs. It rose to its height of 72.5m under Qutbuddin Aibek’s son-in-law and successor, IItutmish in 1236. However, some historians say the construction finished only in 1357-68 during the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
The five floors of the red sandstone structure are surrounded by a balcony that encircles the Minar and are supported by stone brackets, which are decorated with a honeycomb design. A bird’s eye view of the capital from the top can be tempting enough to overcome the fear of climbing the 367 spiral steps. Unfortunately, since the death of a few students in a stampede in 1981, the fifth floor is a forbidden area.
Numerous inscriptions in Arabic and Nagari on the Minar reveal its history. According to the inscriptions, it was repaired, first by Firoz Shah Tughlaq after a lightning struck the tower, and a second time by Sikandar Lodi after lightning struck again in 1503. After a calm of 300 years, the forces of nature tormented the Minar again. An earthquake in 1803 is said to have nearly destroyed it. Fortunately, there was a saviour among the otherwise-plundering colonists. British Major Robert Smith is believed to have rebuilt it.
There was a challenger to Qutab Minar’s dominance. Alauddin Khalji wanted a minar named after him to be the highest in the town. That too, twice as high as the Qutab Minar. But the first-storey curse plagued his dream, too. Alauddin Khalji could complete only the first storey of Alai Minar, which now has a height of 25m. Sadly, he did not have a son-in-law to realise the dream.
As for Qutbuddin Aibek, he tried making the heavens happy by building Quwwatul-Islam Mosque to the northeast of the Minar in 1198. It is a fitting example of Sultanate architecture and is the earliest extant mosque in the country. The southern gateway of the mosque, Alai-Darwaza, was constructed by Alauddin Khilji in 1311. Regarded one of the most treasured gems of Islamic architecture, it is the first building employing Islamic principles of construction and ornamentation.
There is another first: the concept of a combined college and tomb. The tomb belongs to Alauddin Khilji and the madrassa (college) was built by him. Another proud member on the precincts of Qutab Minar is the famous Iron Pillar. It bears an inscription in Sanskrit in the Brahmi script of the fourth century, which says the pillar was set up as a Vishnudhvaja (flagstaff in honour of Vishnu). How it came here is an unsolved mystery, though it’s said that those who can hug the pillar from behind can expect a bounty. However, don’t go there expecting to hug it; now, the pillar is barricaded.
QUTAB MINAR
Situated:
Historic significance: Is
Dead city, awake!By Anosh Malekar
What is cited as an excellent example of the composite culture of this country is today a ‘dead city’ desperately in need of a fresh breath of life. But then the mediaeval city of
Stone Age lived here, but the reasons for their disappearance are not clear. Its known history spans 12 centuries but its links with myths and legends are numerous.
The earliest reference in the Pitha Nirnaya of the Shaktas (devotees of Devi) reveals that a toe of the right foot of Shakti fell at the place where the temple of Goddess Kali and her bhairava, Lakulisa stand today. The Sanskrit drama Gangadasa Pratap Vilas Nataka indicates the existence of a palace, stables, cowsheds, lakes and the Kali temple. There is another reference dating to 1498 AD in a mix of Sanskrit and old Gujarati which refers to the place as Mehmudabad.
Persian and Arabic sources simply refer to a strategically located town when describing the wars. The texts do not reveal details of the town planned by the Rajput rulers on the plateau, or the city constructed by the Sultans at the base of the hill.
The Miraat-i-Sikandari, however, points out how Indian architects adopted the technique of garden houses from Khorassan, and introduced this great art here. The fine mosques and monuments that were laid now stand silent witnesses to the glorious past.
Champaner, an hour’s drive from Vadodara, was a highly developed city of the 15th and 16th century. But socio-political factors led to its decline. The greatest upheaval was witnessed in the 15th century with the rise of the Muzaffari dynasty in
The Chauhans of Champaner had ruled over this virtual no-man’s land for about two centuries, controlling the land movement between coastal
It took almost half a century to create a new capital. The city, renamed Mehmudabad, would play a dual role—as a state capital and defence frontier in the east of
It developed into a prosperous centre of power, but not for long. In 1535 AD, Humayun conquered and pillaged Champaner. The decision to shift the capital back to Ahmedabad with the decline of the Sultanates of Malwa and
What the ravages of war have left today is a trail of largely unexcavated land, with a historical and cultural heritage cradled in an impressive landscape. There are prehistoric (chalcolithic) sites, a hill fortress of the early Hindu capital, remains of the 15th century capital as well as fortifications, palaces, temples, mosques, residential precincts and water installations from the 8th century to the 14th century.
While Pavagadh, a place of reverence to the Hindus, Jains and Muslims, receives hordes of visitors on holy days, very few venture into the ruins of Champaner. The site is spread over 6km and almost 120 monuments have been identified, of which 36 are protected by the ASI. That the site drew national and worldwide attention—it made it to the UNESCO list a couple of years ago—is due to the efforts of Heritage Trust, a voluntary body active in Vadodara.
The recognition accorded to this complex of monuments is all the more noteworthy given the current atmosphere in
CHAMPANER
Situated: At Pavagadh,
Historic significance: Was an ancient fort captured by the Muslim king of
Monumental builders
Mughal period: Their political history can be traced through what they built
By R. Prasannan
The word Mughal is a corruption of the word Mongol. The Mongols had tried to invade
Racially, Babur was not a Mongol but a Turk from modern
The tale of the Mughals is too well-known to be retold here. The real founder of the Mughal empire was Babur’s grandson and Humayun’s son Akbar, the greatest ruler to sit on an Indian throne after Asoka a millennium and half earlier. In his long reign of six decades, Akbar built the greatest, wealthiest and best-ruled empire of its time on earth, surpassing the Persian. The word ‘Mughal’ or Mogul in modern English, became a synonym for wealth, power, splendour and beauty. The revenue earned from Akbar’s Indian empire was more than seven times the revenue earned from the
The afterglow of Akbar illuminated the empires of his son Jehangir and grandson Shahjehan, perhaps the world’s greatest monument builder. The decline started with Aurangazeb’s fanaticism. His successors had neither the vision of Akbar nor the dogmatism of Aurangazeb. Most of them were debauchers who whiled away their time in the gilded
The story of Mughal architecture reflects the story of the rise and fall of the Mughal empire itself. The first notable monument was Humayun’s tomb, made largely of red sandstone, by his wife. It is beautiful, yet a bit unwieldy and unsure. But when one comes to the Taj Mahal one sees perfection in every sense of the term. The third monument to be studied is Safdarjung’s tomb in
Even the political history of the Mughals could be traced through a study of what they built. Akbar’s Fatehpur Sikri, built with red sandstone, reflected a grand experiment in consolidation. By the time Shahjehan came on the scene, Rajasthan had been mostly conquered and marble was available in plenty. Shahjehan’s fascination with marble can still be traced at virtually every monument he laid his hands on. If Akbar’s architecture was characterised by robustness and grandeur, Shahjehan added a touch of femininity and sensuousness.
It could be said that the Mughals came to
If Hindu designs and styles appeared in sultanate architecture, it was mostly because the workers were Hindus. But in the case of Akbar, there was a conscious effort at synthesisation of Indian and Persian styles. His tomb at Sikandra, which he himself designed, is said to have been inspired by Buddhist viharas.
Architecturally, the story of the Mughal empire is this: Babur the gardener laid the land, where Humayun couldn’t spend much time. Akbar built on the land, Jehangir decorated it, Shahjehan enriched it, Aurangazeb neglected it, and his descendants wasted it away.
TAJ MAHAL
Situated: On the banks of the
Historic significance: Was built by the fifth Mughal Emperor Shahjehan as the tomb of his second wife, Mumtaz Mahal. History says that Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) fell in love with Arjuman Banu (Mumtaz Mahal) at the very first sight. In 1612, at the age of 21, she married him and became his consort Mumtaz Mahal. She died in 1630 while giving birth to her 14th child. On her deathbed, it is said that Mumtaz asked the king to build a monument to immortalise their love. Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1631 and was completed after 22 years in 1653 at Rs 32 million. Red sandstone, silver and gold, carnelian and jasper, moonstone and jade, lapiz lazuli and coral were brought in from all over
By Mahesh K.
Among the lesser known wonders of
The monument is 51m tall with three-metre thick walls. The square-shaped building has a semi-circular dome on top and its four corners have seven-storied octagonal spires. The central dome, second in size to the dome of St Peter’s Basilica in
The acoustics of this dome is such that sound is echoed 11 times. Even the tick of a watch or the rustle of paper can be heard across 37 metres in the Whispering Gallery. There is a 14-feet wide verandah where you can hear whispers clearly even if seated at a distance of 130 feet, making it the only monument in the world to have this unique feature.
Under the dome are tombs of the Sultan, his two wives, his mistress Rambha, his daughter and grandson. The octagonal turrets and cornice are other attractions. From the gallery around the dome, one can view the town below. The building complex has a mosque, a Naqqar Khana, a gateway and a dharmashala. The edifice in front of the tomb has been converted into a museum.
The foundations of Bijapur or Vijayapura (meaning city of victory) were laid during the reign of the Chalukyan dynasty of Kalyani between the 10th and 11th centuries. The city, which is the land of five rivers—Bhima, Krishna, Doni, Malaprabha and Ghataprabha—came under Allaudin Khilji, the Sultan of Delhi, and under the Bahamani kings of Bidar in 1347.
The Adil Shahi dynasty was founded by Yusuf Adil Khan, son of Sultan Mahmud II of
Bijapur, also known as the land of saints, experienced a boom in architectural activity; its 50 mosques, 20 tombs and palaces are evidence to this fact. The city’s Muslim connection is evident in historical ruins like Ibrahim Roza, Upli Buruz, Mulk-e-Maidan, Jumma Masjid, Bara Kaman and Asar Mahal. The Islamic style of architecture is its highlight and Indian craftsmen can be spotted along with Persian craftsmen and architects who were deployed by the Muslim rulers of the
GOL GUMBAZ
Situated: Bijapur, Karnataka
Historic significance: The structure is an astounding acoustic feat. Also called the ‘Whispering Dome’, it is the second largest in the world, the largest being St. Peter’s Basilica in
Situated:
Historic significance: This was the pride of six generations of Mughals. The Agra Fort was once an ordinary brick fort held by the Chauhan Rajputs. Akbar rebuilt it with red sandstone and in the next two centuries, his family added almost 500 buildings inside. Sadly, today only about 30 survive. Ironically, an architectural wonder in the fort, built by Akbar and renovated by Shahjehan hastened the latter’s arrest. The Shahi Hanam has a water supply system whose mechanism still remains unknown. Shahjehan was forced to surrender when his son Jehangir besieged the fort and stopped the water supply from the river. The fort’s other legendary constituents include the two storey underground complex of harems and palaces, the beautiful red Jehangiri and Akbari Palaces and Jehangir’s huge bath tub shaped like a cup. Today three-fourths of the Fort is under Army control.
By Shubham Shukla
Of all the places in
Abdul Fazl, an emissary from the court of Akbar, narrates in one of his books that the fort was built by Raja Jai Singh Deva. Legend goes that once a straw cutter’s sickle turned into gold. Thinking that his sickle needed repair, he took it to a blacksmith.
Hindu kings ruled here till 1305, when the Muslims took over. Thus, the influence of both in the architecture. Moreover, the Hindu artists, while carving the pillars and walls for the Mughals, have tried to leave marks of their religion as well.
Mandu is often called ‘the beauty spot of Malwa’. The Muslim rulers, who named the city Shadiabad (city of joy), built some exquisite palaces.
Inside the royal enclave, the ship-like Jahaz Mahal built by Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din-Khilji is unique. Built between two artificial lakes, it is a two-storied palace. Local people insist that Khurram was honoured with the title ‘Shahjada’ in one of the palace courtyards.
Another attraction is the Hindola Mahal or swinging palace. It has inverted sculptures of Hindu gods and goddesses. Some say it was the handiwork of the Muslim rulers while others opine that the Hindu artisans did so to conceal their work.
The palace has a Shahi Hamam (steam bath system) and a Proscenium theatre (designed to be viewed only from the front). Other places of interest inside the enclave are Dilawar Khan’s mosque, Tiger Balcony and Taveli Mahal.
Another important historical building around Mandu is Hoshang Shah’s Tomb. The place is famous for its use of marble for the first time in the country. On one of the doors, it is inscribed that four architects of Shahjehan visited Mandu in 1659 AD. Adjacent to the tomb is the huge Jami Masjid, inspired by the great mosque of Damascu.
Among other palaces, the most interesting ones are Baz Bahadur’s Palace and Rani Rupmati’s pavilion. The balladeers at Malwa still praise the romance of the Muslim-Hindu royal lovers. Rani, it is said, never ate without casting a look at the
Thus, when she came to Mandu, a pavilion was built within 48 hours over an army check point so that she could have a look at
MANDU
Situated: 283 km from
Historic significance: Is the finest example of Afghani and Mughal architecture. First built in the 10th century by the Paramaras, it was rebuilt by the Khiljis of Delhi when they conquered Mandu in 1304. So very little of Hindu architecture is left. Some of the famous structures are The Jahaz Mahal (or the
GOLKONDA FORT
Engineering skillBy Lalita Iyer
One of the most magnificent fort complexes in the country, Golkonda, or 'gollakonda' meaning shepherd's hill, was built by three dynasties, the Kakatiyas, the Bahmanis and the Qutub Shahis, the major contribution coming from the Shahis.
Built on a 400-ft high hill, the Qutub Shahis had expanded the modest structures built by the Kakatiyas in the thirteenth century into a fortress complex that occupied the entire area of the hill and overflowed into the terrain around it. Its outside wall, around 10 miles in length and from 17 to 34 feet thick is broken by 87 semi-circular bastions, 50 to 60 feet high. It took the Qutub Shahis 62 years to build this fort that was completed in 1525.
The complex shows incredible engineering and architectural skills.Today visitors to the Golkonda wonder at the acoustics system. Even the rustle of leaves at the Fateh darwaza, at the lowest level of the fort area, can be heard at the Bala Hisar pavilion on the top of the acropolis.
In fact the fort is really a complex of four forts, that remained unconquered till a traitor opened the Fateh darwaza for Aurangazeb's army.
At the top of the hill is the much talked about Bala Hisar baradari, a double-storeyed and twelve-arched structure.
Bala Hisar also houses the small prison where the great saint Bhadrachala Ramadas was imprisoned for appropriating state funds to build a temple for Rama.
The water supply system was no less ingenious. Water was stored in cisterns at the foot of the hill and transported upwards through a series of Persian wheels via clay pipes. Remnants of the network of clay pipes can still be seen.
FATEHPUR SIKRI
Situated: 26 miles from
Historic significance: Blends both Islamic and Hindu elements in its architectural style. When Jehangir was born to him, Akbar named him after the Sufi saint Sheik Salim Chisti and built the new capital in 1571 to mark his birth. Red sandstone was used. However, after the work was completed 15 years later, there was lack of adequate water supply and the pristine complex was abandoned. The Panch Mahal, or Palace of Five Storeys, and the Buland Darwaza, a massive gate which provides entrance to the complex are some of the finest specimens of Mughal architecture. The complex is also well known for its mammoth chess board, where human figures were used as chess pieces and moved at the emperor’s will.
BARA IMAMBARA
Situated:
Historic significance: Also called the Asafai Imambara, the hall is said to be the world’s largest arched room without pillars. Built in a famine relief programme in 1784 by Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula, it signifies the Nawabi architecture with a central hall, one of the largest vaulted galleries in the world. The roof has been put together by interlocking bricks without using a beam. The upper floor, Bhulbhulaiya, is a labyrinth. Rumi Darwaza, an exquisite gate built by Asaf-ud-Daula, is a replica of the one in
By Deepak Tiwari
Rahiman pani rakheye, bin paani sab soon,
Paani gaye na ubere, moti, manas, chun.
(Preserve water; without it everything is empty. Without water pearl cannot be made, flour cannot be kneaded and human life would be impossible.)
Poet Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana
When Rahim wrote this in the first decade of the 17th century, he was preaching what he practised. As subedar of Burhanpur (called
Burhanpur held an important place in the Mughal scheme of things. Since it acted as a base for the Mughal army to wage battles against the southern states it always remained a strategically important place. Jehangir was governor of Burhanpur before he became emperor while Shahjehan had a more emotional attachment with the place. His wife Mumtaz Mahal’s original tomb is in Burhanpur.
Though Burhanpur was surrounded by rivers Tapti and Utavali, collecting water remained a challenge. So Rahim devised a water management system. He entrusted the task to Persian engineer Tabkutul Arz, who created an underground water management system with over 200 kundis (wells) spread over seven kilometres. It was named Khaire Naire Zaari, meaning ‘precious canal water for public’. Later, it came to be known as Kundi Bhandara (collection of wells).
The system works on the principle of gravity; water travels from the foothills of Satpura to Burhanpur town without being pumped. "The system was developed to effectively check the flow of rainwater from the Satpura hills flowing towards river Tapti," said Jai Nagada, a journalist. "Water flows from the first kundi on the Satpura hill (almost 30m above ground level) to the last kundi. The diameter [0.75m to 1.75m] and depth [6 to 24m] of kundis vary according to their location."
As many as 103 wells can still be seen from the surface. In olden days people used to go inside the tunnel using the iron stairs. After the system was partially revived, thanks to the efforts of a maverick collector, Praveen Garg, a lift was installed at well no. 2. "As children we used to play inside the canal and have seen these kundis collapsing," said Mohammad Salim Beg, the canal’s caretaker.
Salim cleared the debris and made the canal functional when Burhanpur faced a water shortage in May 2000. "Before 2000 water reached only till kundi no. 13," he said. "Farmers had made horizontal holes into the canal to fill their wells; some even installed pump sets in the kundis."
Over 5,000 people now benefit from the system. Over the years the storage capacity has declined considerably. In the beginning it could store over 10 lakh litres; now it is down to 40,000 litres.
KUNDI BHANDARA, BURHANPUR
Situated: Madhya Pradesh
Historic significance: Since the 17th century, Burhanpur acted as a base for the Mughal army to wage battles against the southern states and was strategically important. Though Burhanpur was surrounded by rivers Tapti and Utavali, collecting water remained a challenge. A water management system was built by a Persian engineer Tabkutul Arz, who created an underground water management system with over 200 kundis (wells) spread over 7 km. It was named Khaire Naire Zaari, meaning ‘precious canal water for public’. Later, it came to be known as Kundi Bhandara (collection of wells).
Architectural legacy
European period: Their architectural style reflected the grandeur of the west and the artistic sublimity of the east
By Prince Mathews Thomas
Chronologically speaking, the Europeans arrived in
Yet European power had to wait out the entire Mughal period to consolidate in
Each of the European powers had its own trademark colonial characteristic. The Portuguese seemed anxious to convert the locals to their sect of Christianity, thus alienating even the native Christians. They even misread Akbar’s academic interest in Christian theology as a sign of willingness to be baptised! The Dutch, essentially a nation of sea-traders, didn’t have the strategic vision to back their trade with armed might. The liberal French mingled well with the natives, but, caught in their own post-revolutionary republican confusion, lacked a state will to back their adventures in
Only the British, already having consolidated as a nation-state in Europe and propelled by mercantile parliamentarism, could consolidate in
Plassey is often described as the turning point that helped the consolidation of British power in
But the real empire-building started with Cornwallis and Wellesley who also built the stately government house in
The attention now turned towards the frontiers. The Gorkhas of Nepal were defeated, but not conquered, and made allies against any sort of Chinese adventurism.
Real imperial dreams, as distinct from pure colonial aggrandizement, were dreamed after Queen
The legacy of Curzon had its impact on construction style also. The Victoria Terminus in Mumbai, completed in 1888, was totally in Italian-Gothic style, whereas post-Curzon, there was a syncretisation of the oriental and the western. Finally, when the empire moved to
GOAN CHURCHES
Situated:
Historic significance: Mostly built in laterite and lime plaster, these structures echo the Portuguese legacy. Built between the 16th and the 17th centuries, the churches and cathedrals are reminiscent of Renaissance and baroque styles. The main churches are Se’ Cathedral, Convent of St Francis Assisi, Chapel of St Catherine, Basilica of Bom Jesus, Church of Lady of Rosary and the Church of St Augustine. The Basilica of Bom Jesus has the mortal remains of St Francis Xavier. The Se’ Cathedral with its Tuscan exterior, Corinthian columns, raised platform and barrel-vault is typically Renaissance architecture. Except for a few statues which are in stone, most of the other statues of the saints, Mother Mary and Jesus are first carved in wood and then painted.
By Quaied Najmi
Every day, over 30 lakh commuters scurry in and out of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST). But in their hurry to get on with life, hardly anyone stops to admire the 117-year-old building. The Unesco, however, took notice of its Victorian Gothic Revival architecture and put it on the World Heritage list last year. With 1,100 suburban and 68 long-distance train services daily, the CST, which was called
The building’s sculptural details like the two giant lions, a tiger, delicate carvings of gargoyles, figures of large and small animals, dancing peacocks on the windows and a 16.5-feet statue of a lady holding a flaming torch in her right hand and a wheel in her left are amazing. Also striking are images of the 10 directors of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway who laid
The main booking office has the choicest Italian marble, blue stone, elaborate stone arches with carvings, tessellated floor, dadoes of glazed tiles, and galleries with ornamental iron work by students of Sir J.J. School of Architecture. The roof is painted azure with gold stars, some of which have lost their sheen, but will get it back soon. After all, it is the only Indian railway site to be marked World Heritage after the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway in 1999. It is the second heritage site in Mumbai, the other being the
Located in the heart of Mumbai, the CST building and its platforms occupy a prime real estate of 80 acres. In 1888, the structure cost Rs 26,54,111 to build. Today the same money would only be just enough to buy a 1,000 sq. ft flat in the suburbs or a 200 sq. ft room in south Mumbai!
CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI TERMINUS
Situated: Mumbai,
Historic significance: Formerly known as the Victoria Terminus. It is an example of Victorian Gothic revival architecture. It became a symbol for Mumbai as a major mercantile port city on the Indian subcontinent within the
By Tapash Ganguly
On December 2, 1999, UNESCO declared the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (DHR) a World Heritage Site. The inscription said it was "the first, and still the most outstanding example of a hill passenger railway. Opened in 1881, it applied bold and ingenious engineering solutions to the problem of establishing an effective rail link across a mountainous terrain of great beauty. It is still fully operational and retains most of its original features intact".
While evaluating the application, one of the two parameters UNESCO set was whether it has brought about socio-economic development in the region. DHR got full marks for it.
Franklin Prestage, the agent of the Eastern Bengal Railway first mooted the idea in 1878, of connecting Siliguri in the foothills of the Himalayas with
Before the start of the DHR, it took about a month to reach
Prestage set up the Darjeeling Steam Tramway Company to construct the 2ft gauge hill railway. The capital was raised within
It was here the engineer received his first setback. Deep erosion in the hillside made it impossible to employ a gradient within the limits of railway transport. There seemed to be no alternative but to admit failure. But suddenly, the engineer’s wife said, "Darling, if you can’t go ahead, why don’t you come back?"
This idea, of climbing mountains, known as ‘Z’ reversing stations, is simple. The train runs forward almost to the edge of the cliff, then backwards at an oblique angle up the hillside, then forward again, this time higher than the original track to avoid the problem of land erosion.
Ghum station (7,407 ft) is the highest point on the DHR. After that there is a descent of four miles down a spur to
On October 20, 1948, the Indian government took over the railway. In the beginning, it was profitable and used to pay its shareholders handsome dividends. But after its amalgamation with Indian Railways and facing stiff competition from road transport, it became a loss-making unit.
In the early 80s of the last century there was a plan to close it down permanently. But the UNESCO’S conferment of the honour of a World Heritage Site saved DHR from an inglorious end.
Today, to encourage tourism and bolster its sagging coffers DHR is offering package deals to tourists.
Situated: As a 51-mile stretch from Siliguri to
Historic significance: Uses neither rack mechanism nor cable and moves only on adhesion. Built by Franklin Prestage, the train goes up to Ghum, 7,407 feet above sea level. The only other railway in the world that reaches a higher altitude is in the Andes where the
By Prince Mathews Thomas
The British wanted it to be their answer to the American White House. Though the answer was good enough, the British didn’t anticipate that within 17 years of building the Viceroy House, they would have to leave the country and the architectural wonder would be renamed Rashtrapati Bhavan, home to
Today, the head of the
Lutyens was not a fan of the Indian school of building. For him, The Taj Mahal was just ‘pretty’. He rejected the Viceroy, Lord Hardinge’s suggestion that the house should be an example of Euro-Indian architecture.
Ironically, Rashtrapati Bhavan glorifies the Rajput and the Mughal style of decoration. Be it the use of pink sandstone that Akbar used in Fatehpur Sikri, the Mughal Gardens, the very dominant black dome influenced by the Stupa at Sanchi or even the use of chajjas, chhatris and jaalis though a few of the jaalis are European in inspiration.
Another ‘Indian’ feature of the Bhavan is the use of pillars akin to Indian temples. It is said that the idea to adopt such bells in the pillars came from a Jain temple at Moodabidri in Karnataka. Lutyens also recognised the place of elephants in Indian culture, using the animal motif extensively on pillars, gates and basements. And another motif, the lotus, adorns the Jaipur column. The fountains of
The decision to build the Bhavan was taken in 1911 and the project was to take four years on a budget of Rs 60 lakh. While it took four times the time, the budget shot up to Rs 1.4 crore. Indian builders, like Sujan Singh, were part of the construction, but have rarely been given their due.
The huge halls, high roofs, expensive rugs and carpets, ageless paintings and the luxurious furniture went well with the lifestyle of the viceroys.
But when the first Indian occupier, Chakravati Rajagopalachari took office as the Governor General of the new nation, he preferred the more modest rooms, which is now the Family Wing of the President. The then viceroy’s more opulent apartments have been turned into the Guest Wing.
The Bhavan’s Ashok Hall and its frescoes are perhaps the most awe-inspiring and also a bit ‘magical’. Try staring at Fateh Ali Khan on the white horse in the centre of the painting, and he will stare back, from every angle. And did you know that the floor of Durbar Hall, where gallantry and civilian awards are given, is on level with the top of India Gate? Only rarely does one get it so right.
RASHTRAPATI BHAVAN
Situated: West end of Rajpath,
Historic significance: Designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and completed in 1929, this building was formerly the Vice-Regal lodge (viceroy’s house) during the British Raj. Built in two shades of sandstones, the palace cost about Rs 1.4 crore, covering an area of 18,580 sq. m, bigger than Louis XIV’s palace at
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